History of Haleem
Haleem is traditionally slow cooked overnight, while two to three people are required to continuously stir it. True to the dishes’ cooking time, ‘Haleem’ in Arabic means ‘patient”. The lentils, rice and the meat and spices are cooked separately. Thereafter they are combined and pounded together to achieve a unique paste-like consistency. Lastly, it is garnished with nuts, berista (caramelized onion), herbs like coriander and mint, green chilies and lemon juice.
The word Halim comes from the Arabic language meaning shredded meat. Halim is a very popular food in the Middle East, Central Asia, and the Pakistan/Indian subcontinent. There are many varieties of Halim based on different regions. Persian Haleem is different from the Haleems served in the Arabic countries, Same like in Lahori is different from Karachi or Kashmiri.
About a thousand years ago, the Alawites used to cook Haleems only on sacred nights, and by morning they would hand out the food they had prepared to people. This act was called “giving out Nazri”, and “Nazri” meant free food. They believed that Halim was the most difficult and most time-consuming food to cook, making their Nazri more meaningful.
Time passed. Persians kept the holy meaning of cooking Haleems, but they also added a new sense to it. Halim was served warm, and it counted as breakfast. So, on the long cold nights of winter, the people of Jasb (a city in the middle of Iran) cooked this food throughout the night. They served it as a hot breakfast to their family members, warming them up for the cold day ahead. They did this for the entire season.
The original Haleems, the one that started it all, is made from barley, shredded meat (beef, lamb, chicken or turkey) and spices. This dish is cooked for several hours, which results in a paste-like consistency, blending the flavors of spices, meat, barley, and wheat.
The ingredients of different Haleems are basically replacements of the ingredients of the original. I’ll explain in more detail further on
Origins of Haleem
Haleem traces its origins back to a dish mentioned in Saif al-Dawlah Al-Hamdani's Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Recipes), written in 10th century Syria, where he describes harisa, a specialty made of wheat beaten into a paste and cooked with meat and spices.
A chef from Yemen is said to have first prepared the dish, also called "harees" or "harissa" in Arab countries, for the then Nizam of Hyderabad in 1930. Subsequently, some Irani hotels started selling it here.
2-The origin of Haleem lies in the popular Arabian dish known as Harees (also written as Jareesh). According to Shoaib Daniyal, writing in The Sunday Guardian, the first written recipe of Harees dates back to the 10th century, when Arab scribe Abu Muhammad al-Muzaffar ibn Sayyar compiled a cookbook of dishes popular with the "kings and caliphs and lords and leaders" of Baghdad. "The version described in his Kitab Al-Tabikh (Book of Recipes), the world's oldest surviving Arabic cookbook, is strikingly similar to the one people in the Middle East eat to this day" it reported. The Harees was cooked as the Arab empire was extended to different parts of the world.
Haleem had reached Hyderabad during the reign of the sixth Nizam Mahbub Ali Khan, it only became Hyderabad’s own under the seventh Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan in the first half of the 20th century. Sultan Saif Nawaz Jung Bahadur, a scion of Al-Qu'aiti dynasty of Yemen, then a prominent noble in the seventh Nizam’s court, all the more popularized the dish when he used it as the star of his dinner parties.
Harees or Jareesh, a sort of an elder cousin to the Haleem, or to put it more precisely, a predecessor to Haleem, is still sold in the all part of sub-continent.
Haleem had found its way into the Mughal capital of Delhi as well. Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th century court-document by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, mentions the preparation of both Haleem and Harees in the royal kitchen.
Many people believe that the dish should rather be called Daleem since it's primarily made of an assortment of dals or pulses. Another popular view finds its grounds in religious sentiments. Since Haleem is part of the Asma-ul-Husna (the 99 names of Allah), it being the name of a food item seems very blasphemous to a lot of people. While others believe that Haleem is the name they have known all their life and bringing religion into this matter is an exaggeration.
In Kashmir, Hareesa is a popular dish exclusively eaten during the winter months. Instead of wheat, short-grained rice is used for the preparation of the same. Caramelized onion is replaced by Kashmiri shallot and Desi ghee with mustard oil. It's eaten along with Kashmiri bread.
North Kerala consumes a sweeter version of Haleem called Aleesa or Alsa. Along with the ingredients used in a typical Hyderabadi haleem, coconut milk, sugar and raisins are a merry addition. From the 7th century onwards, Arab merchants traded on the Malabar coast. Many of these traders married local women, giving rise to the Mappila Muslim community. Hereon Arab dishes were inducted into the religion. Arabic cooking techniques were assimilated with the local spices and ingredients, birthing the distinct Mappila cuisine.
Among Bohras, a Muslim community from Yemen who settled on the coast of Gujarat around the 11th century, take pride in a haleem-like dish called Khichra. Khichra is not as spicy as Haleem and the meat pieces are not pounded and mixed as in the case of Haleem but rather left as tiny chunks.
Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula of Lucknow got the Bara Imambara commissioned as a famine-relief project in 1784. The kingdom was experiencing one of the worst seen draughts. Anyone who would provide labor in the construction of the Imambara would get food as remuneration. This food was made by slow-cooking mutton, various pulses and rice together. After the famine situation was dealt with, the dish did not get lost as would be expected but rather flourished and reached other parts of North India. Khichra is served as a street food in present-day Pakistan as well, especially in the city of Karachi.
In Pakistan, Haleem is quite popular, especially in the city of Karachi. Two of the most famous haleem outlets are Karachi Haleem and Mazaidar Haleem, located in Burns Road and have been catering since the 1980s. They started as small stalls but in today's time have established themselves as Haleem moguls. Mazaidar Haleem became the first company in Pakistan to tin pack haleem and even export it to Japan and Dubai.
Apart from daily meal, Haleem specially prepare and eaten and offered as Niyaz (charity) during month of Muharram (first month in the Islamic calender, marks the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain bin Hazrat Ali, grandson of Prophet Muhammad on Ashura day or tenth day ). Oral traditions narrate the cooking of Hareesa or Haleem by combining whatever grains, wheat and meat that was available by the family members of the martyrs after the burial during the Battle of Karbala, Iraq in 680 AD. To commemorate this event, Haleem is eaten on this day. Though the story lacks historical backing, it is a well-established tradition in today's time.
In the Punjab province of Pakistan, Haleem is served with kebab on top of it.
Haleem is associated with Islamic festivals. But to most people’s surprise, Jews from Persia have been eating Harees on Sabbath day (seventh day of the week, observed as day of rest) since medieval times. On the other hand, Syrian Christians prepare it on the Feast of Assumption (marks Virgin Mary’s ascent to Heaven).
Difference between Harees and Haleem
Ratio of wheat to meat: 1:1 vs. 1:3
Taste: Bland vs. spicy
Consistency: Semi liquid vs. thick porridge
The process of making haleem is lengthy and tiresome and there is an explosion of haleem in the city every Ramadan. With an increasing demand for the succulent meat stew, more and more restaurants are now serving it and stalls come up across city, catering to long lines of haleem enthusiasts.
Bangladesh's recipe stays true to the wholesome, nourishing nature of the traditional Arabian porridge, yet with the fistfuls of lentils and spices to complement rather than overpower the base meat and wheat flavor and served with crisp fried onions, grated raw ginger and a spritz of lime.
A common misconception is that if chicken is used for preparation of the dish, it is called harees. However, chicken was actually used in harees because it was cheaper in price, making it affordable for all and lamb became the rich man's option. Rest assured that all three types of meat can be used in preparation of both harees and haleem.
If reading all about haleem has you salivating for some, then here are three most referred dishes which you can easily prepare at home
Haleem traces its origins back to a dish mentioned in Saif al-Dawlah Al-Hamdani's Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Recipes), written in 10th century Syria, where he describes harisa, a specialty made of wheat beaten into a paste and cooked with meat and spices.
A chef from Yemen is said to have first prepared the dish, also called "harees" or "harissa" in Arab countries, for the then Nizam of Hyderabad in 1930. Subsequently, some Irani hotels started selling it here.
2-The origin of Haleem lies in the popular Arabian dish known as Harees (also written as Jareesh). According to Shoaib Daniyal, writing in The Sunday Guardian, the first written recipe of Harees dates back to the 10th century, when Arab scribe Abu Muhammad al-Muzaffar ibn Sayyar compiled a cookbook of dishes popular with the "kings and caliphs and lords and leaders" of Baghdad. "The version described in his Kitab Al-Tabikh (Book of Recipes), the world's oldest surviving Arabic cookbook, is strikingly similar to the one people in the Middle East eat to this day" it reported. The Harees was cooked as the Arab empire was extended to different parts of the world.
Haleem had reached Hyderabad during the reign of the sixth Nizam Mahbub Ali Khan, it only became Hyderabad’s own under the seventh Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan in the first half of the 20th century. Sultan Saif Nawaz Jung Bahadur, a scion of Al-Qu'aiti dynasty of Yemen, then a prominent noble in the seventh Nizam’s court, all the more popularized the dish when he used it as the star of his dinner parties.
Harees or Jareesh, a sort of an elder cousin to the Haleem, or to put it more precisely, a predecessor to Haleem, is still sold in the all part of sub-continent.
Haleem had found its way into the Mughal capital of Delhi as well. Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th century court-document by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, mentions the preparation of both Haleem and Harees in the royal kitchen.
Many people believe that the dish should rather be called Daleem since it's primarily made of an assortment of dals or pulses. Another popular view finds its grounds in religious sentiments. Since Haleem is part of the Asma-ul-Husna (the 99 names of Allah), it being the name of a food item seems very blasphemous to a lot of people. While others believe that Haleem is the name they have known all their life and bringing religion into this matter is an exaggeration.
In Kashmir, Hareesa is a popular dish exclusively eaten during the winter months. Instead of wheat, short-grained rice is used for the preparation of the same. Caramelized onion is replaced by Kashmiri shallot and Desi ghee with mustard oil. It's eaten along with Kashmiri bread.
North Kerala consumes a sweeter version of Haleem called Aleesa or Alsa. Along with the ingredients used in a typical Hyderabadi haleem, coconut milk, sugar and raisins are a merry addition. From the 7th century onwards, Arab merchants traded on the Malabar coast. Many of these traders married local women, giving rise to the Mappila Muslim community. Hereon Arab dishes were inducted into the religion. Arabic cooking techniques were assimilated with the local spices and ingredients, birthing the distinct Mappila cuisine.
Among Bohras, a Muslim community from Yemen who settled on the coast of Gujarat around the 11th century, take pride in a haleem-like dish called Khichra. Khichra is not as spicy as Haleem and the meat pieces are not pounded and mixed as in the case of Haleem but rather left as tiny chunks.
Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula of Lucknow got the Bara Imambara commissioned as a famine-relief project in 1784. The kingdom was experiencing one of the worst seen draughts. Anyone who would provide labor in the construction of the Imambara would get food as remuneration. This food was made by slow-cooking mutton, various pulses and rice together. After the famine situation was dealt with, the dish did not get lost as would be expected but rather flourished and reached other parts of North India. Khichra is served as a street food in present-day Pakistan as well, especially in the city of Karachi.
In Pakistan, Haleem is quite popular, especially in the city of Karachi. Two of the most famous haleem outlets are Karachi Haleem and Mazaidar Haleem, located in Burns Road and have been catering since the 1980s. They started as small stalls but in today's time have established themselves as Haleem moguls. Mazaidar Haleem became the first company in Pakistan to tin pack haleem and even export it to Japan and Dubai.
Apart from daily meal, Haleem specially prepare and eaten and offered as Niyaz (charity) during month of Muharram (first month in the Islamic calender, marks the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain bin Hazrat Ali, grandson of Prophet Muhammad on Ashura day or tenth day ). Oral traditions narrate the cooking of Hareesa or Haleem by combining whatever grains, wheat and meat that was available by the family members of the martyrs after the burial during the Battle of Karbala, Iraq in 680 AD. To commemorate this event, Haleem is eaten on this day. Though the story lacks historical backing, it is a well-established tradition in today's time.
In the Punjab province of Pakistan, Haleem is served with kebab on top of it.
Haleem is associated with Islamic festivals. But to most people’s surprise, Jews from Persia have been eating Harees on Sabbath day (seventh day of the week, observed as day of rest) since medieval times. On the other hand, Syrian Christians prepare it on the Feast of Assumption (marks Virgin Mary’s ascent to Heaven).
Difference between Harees and Haleem
Ratio of wheat to meat: 1:1 vs. 1:3
Taste: Bland vs. spicy
Consistency: Semi liquid vs. thick porridge
The process of making haleem is lengthy and tiresome and there is an explosion of haleem in the city every Ramadan. With an increasing demand for the succulent meat stew, more and more restaurants are now serving it and stalls come up across city, catering to long lines of haleem enthusiasts.
Bangladesh's recipe stays true to the wholesome, nourishing nature of the traditional Arabian porridge, yet with the fistfuls of lentils and spices to complement rather than overpower the base meat and wheat flavor and served with crisp fried onions, grated raw ginger and a spritz of lime.
A common misconception is that if chicken is used for preparation of the dish, it is called harees. However, chicken was actually used in harees because it was cheaper in price, making it affordable for all and lamb became the rich man's option. Rest assured that all three types of meat can be used in preparation of both harees and haleem.
If reading all about haleem has you salivating for some, then here are three most referred dishes which you can easily prepare at home
1. Pakistani Haleem: Pakistani haleem is similar to Hyderabadi haleem but may have slight variations in spices and ingredients. It is commonly made with a mix of lentils, wheat, and meat (such as beef or chicken). Pakistani haleem is known for its rich and aromatic flavors.
2. Kolkata Haleem: Kolkata haleem, also called "Bengali haleem," is a popular variation in the city of Kolkata, India. It typically includes a combination of lentils, meat (such as mutton or chicken), and broken wheat. Kolkata haleem has a slightly thinner consistency compared to other types.
3. Hyderabadi Haleem: Hyderabadi haleem is a famous variation from the city of Hyderabad in India. It is made with a combination of lentils, wheat, and meat (usually mutton or chicken). It has a thick and creamy texture and is often garnished with fried onions, fresh coriander, and a squeeze of lemon.
4. Iranian Haleem: Iranian haleem, also known as "Halim Bademjan," is a vegetarian version of haleem. It is made with a blend of lentils, wheat, and eggplant. Iranian haleem has a unique smoky flavor and is often garnished with fried mint leaves and caramelized onions.
5. Turkish Haleem: Turkish haleem, known as "Dövme Pilavı," is a variation that combines rice and meat. It is made by slow-cooking rice, meat (such as lamb or chicken), and various spices until they are well blended and have a creamy texture. Turkish haleem is often served with yogurt and garnished with melted butter and Aleppo pepper.
Here is the background and recipe for my favorite dish. I sincerely hope you enjoy it, and please give it a shot.
Ingredients:
250g Broken wheat (dalia)
100g Chana dal (split chickpeas lentils)
100g Masoor dal (Red lentil lentils)
100g Urad dal (split black gram lentils)
100g Moong dal (split green gram lentils)
1kg Mutton or Beef
2 large onions (finely sliced)
2 tablespoons ginger-garlic paste
1 tbs cumin powder
1 tbs coriander powder
1 tbs Fennel seed powder
1 tbs red chili powder
1/2 tbs turmeric powder
1 tbs garam masala powder
1 tbs cumin powder
1 tbs coriander powder
1/2 cup yogurt
1/2 cup chopped mint leaves
1/2 cup chopped coriander leaves
1/4 cup fried onions (for garnish)
100g Ghee (clarified butter)
2 tbs cooking oil
Salt to taste
Instructions:
Wash the broken wheat and lentils (chana dal, urad dal, and moong dal) thoroughly. Soak them together in water for at least 2 hours.
In a large cooking pot or pressure cooker, heat the cooking oil and add the sliced onions. Sauté until they turn golden brown.
Add the ginger-garlic paste and sauté for another minute until the raw smell disappears.
Add the mutton or chicken pieces and cook until they are browned on all sides.
Stir in the red chili powder, turmeric powder, cumin powder, coriander powder, and half of the garam masala powder. Mix well and cook for a few minutes.
Add the soaked broken wheat and lentils to the pot, along with salt to taste. Mix everything together.
Pour enough water to cover the ingredients in the pot. Bring it to a boil, then reduce the heat to low, cover the pot, and let it cook for about 2-3 hours. Alternatively, you can use a pressure cooker and cook for about 30-40 minutes after the first whistle on medium heat.
As the mixture cooks, keep stirring occasionally to prevent it from sticking to the bottom of the pot and to get the desired creamy texture.
Once the lentils and meat are tender and well-cooked, use a hand blender or a masher to blend the mixture into a smooth, porridge-like consistency. Be careful as it will be hot.
Add the yogurt, ghee, and the remaining garam masala powder to the blended mixture. Mix well and let it simmer for another 10-15 minutes, stirring occasionally.
Adjust the seasoning according to taste.
Lastly, add the chopped mint and coriander leaves, and mix them into the Haleem.
Serve the Hyderabadi Haleem hot, garnished with fried onions and a drizzle of ghee on top. You can also serve it with naan, roti, or crusty bread.
Enjoy the flavorful and comforting Hyderabadi Haleem during the holy month of Ramadan or on any special occasion!
The Nutritional Benefits of Haleem
1. Many people believe that haleem is a healthy food option because it’s high in protein, fibre, and other nutrients. The lentils and meat used in haleem are both excellent sources of protein, which is important for building and repairing muscles.
2. The meat used in haleem is also a good source of iron which is important for the production of red blood cells. The spices used in haleem, such as turmeric, and coriander, have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and may help to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
3. High Protein Content: Hyderabadi Haleem is rich in protein, thanks to its main ingredients of meat and lentils. Protein is essential for muscle repair, immune function, and overall growth and development.
4. Complex Carbohydrates: The dish contains complex carbohydrates from wheat and lentils, providing sustained energy throughout the day and helping to regulate blood sugar levels.
5. Dietary Fiber: With the inclusion of lentils and wheat, Hyderabadi Haleem is a good source of dietary fibre, promoting healthy digestion and aiding in weight management.
6. Essential Vitamins and Minerals: The diverse spices and ingredients in Haleem offer a variety of essential vitamins and minerals, contributing to overall health and well-being.
7. Hydration: Haleem's porridge-like consistency helps maintain hydration during the fasting period, as it contains water from the cooking process and the ingredients themselves, preventing dehydration.
The Cultural Significance of Haleem
Haleem isn’t just about nutrition; it is also about culture and tradition. In many Muslim households, haleem is a symbol of family, community, and hospitality. During Ramadan, many families gather together to break their fast with a bowl of haleem. It is also a reflection of the diversity of Islamic cuisine, with each region putting its unique spin on the dish.
Conclusion
The next time you enjoy a bowl of haleem, take a moment to appreciate the history behind the delicious dish. Haleem is more than just food. It is a story, a tradition, and a way of life.
These are just a few examples of the different types of haleem found in various regions. The ingredients and cooking methods may vary, but haleem is generally a hearty and flavorful dish enjoyed by many cultures.
2. Kolkata Haleem: Kolkata haleem, also called "Bengali haleem," is a popular variation in the city of Kolkata, India. It typically includes a combination of lentils, meat (such as mutton or chicken), and broken wheat. Kolkata haleem has a slightly thinner consistency compared to other types.
3. Hyderabadi Haleem: Hyderabadi haleem is a famous variation from the city of Hyderabad in India. It is made with a combination of lentils, wheat, and meat (usually mutton or chicken). It has a thick and creamy texture and is often garnished with fried onions, fresh coriander, and a squeeze of lemon.
4. Iranian Haleem: Iranian haleem, also known as "Halim Bademjan," is a vegetarian version of haleem. It is made with a blend of lentils, wheat, and eggplant. Iranian haleem has a unique smoky flavor and is often garnished with fried mint leaves and caramelized onions.
5. Turkish Haleem: Turkish haleem, known as "Dövme Pilavı," is a variation that combines rice and meat. It is made by slow-cooking rice, meat (such as lamb or chicken), and various spices until they are well blended and have a creamy texture. Turkish haleem is often served with yogurt and garnished with melted butter and Aleppo pepper.
Here is the background and recipe for my favorite dish. I sincerely hope you enjoy it, and please give it a shot.
Ingredients:
250g Broken wheat (dalia)
100g Chana dal (split chickpeas lentils)
100g Masoor dal (Red lentil lentils)
100g Urad dal (split black gram lentils)
100g Moong dal (split green gram lentils)
1kg Mutton or Beef
2 large onions (finely sliced)
2 tablespoons ginger-garlic paste
1 tbs cumin powder
1 tbs coriander powder
1 tbs Fennel seed powder
1 tbs red chili powder
1/2 tbs turmeric powder
1 tbs garam masala powder
1 tbs cumin powder
1 tbs coriander powder
1/2 cup yogurt
1/2 cup chopped mint leaves
1/2 cup chopped coriander leaves
1/4 cup fried onions (for garnish)
100g Ghee (clarified butter)
2 tbs cooking oil
Salt to taste
Instructions:
Wash the broken wheat and lentils (chana dal, urad dal, and moong dal) thoroughly. Soak them together in water for at least 2 hours.
In a large cooking pot or pressure cooker, heat the cooking oil and add the sliced onions. Sauté until they turn golden brown.
Add the ginger-garlic paste and sauté for another minute until the raw smell disappears.
Add the mutton or chicken pieces and cook until they are browned on all sides.
Stir in the red chili powder, turmeric powder, cumin powder, coriander powder, and half of the garam masala powder. Mix well and cook for a few minutes.
Add the soaked broken wheat and lentils to the pot, along with salt to taste. Mix everything together.
Pour enough water to cover the ingredients in the pot. Bring it to a boil, then reduce the heat to low, cover the pot, and let it cook for about 2-3 hours. Alternatively, you can use a pressure cooker and cook for about 30-40 minutes after the first whistle on medium heat.
As the mixture cooks, keep stirring occasionally to prevent it from sticking to the bottom of the pot and to get the desired creamy texture.
Once the lentils and meat are tender and well-cooked, use a hand blender or a masher to blend the mixture into a smooth, porridge-like consistency. Be careful as it will be hot.
Add the yogurt, ghee, and the remaining garam masala powder to the blended mixture. Mix well and let it simmer for another 10-15 minutes, stirring occasionally.
Adjust the seasoning according to taste.
Lastly, add the chopped mint and coriander leaves, and mix them into the Haleem.
Serve the Hyderabadi Haleem hot, garnished with fried onions and a drizzle of ghee on top. You can also serve it with naan, roti, or crusty bread.
Enjoy the flavorful and comforting Hyderabadi Haleem during the holy month of Ramadan or on any special occasion!
The Nutritional Benefits of Haleem
1. Many people believe that haleem is a healthy food option because it’s high in protein, fibre, and other nutrients. The lentils and meat used in haleem are both excellent sources of protein, which is important for building and repairing muscles.
2. The meat used in haleem is also a good source of iron which is important for the production of red blood cells. The spices used in haleem, such as turmeric, and coriander, have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and may help to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
3. High Protein Content: Hyderabadi Haleem is rich in protein, thanks to its main ingredients of meat and lentils. Protein is essential for muscle repair, immune function, and overall growth and development.
4. Complex Carbohydrates: The dish contains complex carbohydrates from wheat and lentils, providing sustained energy throughout the day and helping to regulate blood sugar levels.
5. Dietary Fiber: With the inclusion of lentils and wheat, Hyderabadi Haleem is a good source of dietary fibre, promoting healthy digestion and aiding in weight management.
6. Essential Vitamins and Minerals: The diverse spices and ingredients in Haleem offer a variety of essential vitamins and minerals, contributing to overall health and well-being.
7. Hydration: Haleem's porridge-like consistency helps maintain hydration during the fasting period, as it contains water from the cooking process and the ingredients themselves, preventing dehydration.
The Cultural Significance of Haleem
Haleem isn’t just about nutrition; it is also about culture and tradition. In many Muslim households, haleem is a symbol of family, community, and hospitality. During Ramadan, many families gather together to break their fast with a bowl of haleem. It is also a reflection of the diversity of Islamic cuisine, with each region putting its unique spin on the dish.
Conclusion
The next time you enjoy a bowl of haleem, take a moment to appreciate the history behind the delicious dish. Haleem is more than just food. It is a story, a tradition, and a way of life.
These are just a few examples of the different types of haleem found in various regions. The ingredients and cooking methods may vary, but haleem is generally a hearty and flavorful dish enjoyed by many cultures.
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